OAE Pedagogy: Motivation and Communication
Thank you Laura Gray and Cara Crawford for consolidating this information.
Motivation based on Behavioral theory
Extrinsic motivation: engaging for external reasons
Intrinsic motivation: engaging for its own sake or out of interest
How to create an intrinsically motivating learning environment: introduce a lesson by conveying importance or relevance, use enthusiasm and surprise, design tasks of optimal difficulty, provide choices for learning activities, create tasks that involve collaborative grouping, display students’ work to emphasize effort, creativity, and pride in accomplishment
External Locus of Control: the result of one’s behavior—getting a reward—is the result of external factors beyond one’s control, like luck
Internal Locus of Control: The result of one’s behavior is the result of internal factors that one can control like ability or effort
Rewards:
Rewards can have different effects on intrinsic motivation depending on several factors:
Task-Contingent Rewards: given for participating in or completing an activity
Performance-Contingent Rewards: given for doing well or achieving a certain level or performance
How can one use rewards effectively?
Encouragement: Informational and used to help individuals improve
Evaluative Praise: Judgment on performance or behavior. Is often referred to as controlling because it doesn’t affect intrinsic motivation
Process Praise: evaluation of the process taken to complete a task
Performance Praise: outcome praise. Evaluation of the end project
Person Praise: favorable judgment about a person’s attributes or behaviors
Motivation based on Cognitive theory
Expectancy: student’s expectation for success
Value: reason for undertaking a task
Intrinsic Value: satisfying interest, curiosity, or enjoyment
Attainment Value: the intrinsic importance of being good at a task
Utility Value: extrinsic usefulness for meeting short-term and long-term goals
Mastery-Approach Goal: focus on improving intellectually, acquiring new skills and knowledge, and developing competence.
Performance-Approach Goal: motivated by a need to achieve and a fear of failure. Outperform others.
Mastery-Avoidance Goal: avoid situations where they might fail the achieve mastery.
Anxiety: mental thoughts related to worrying and negative emotions such as nervousness or tension, which can impair academic performance
Learned Helplessness: a person believes that they cannot succeed. Learn to behave helplessly.
Three Dimensions of Attributions:
Entity View of Ability: internal, uncontrollable, stable
Student-Level Techniques to Enhance Students’ Motivation
Questioning
3 Main Forms of Discussion:
1. Spontaneous Discussion
a. Can provide a model of listening critically and exploring personal beliefs
b. Especially useful when students become interested in a topic, when they raise an important issue during class, or when they are on the brink of grasping an idea
2. Exploratory Discussion
a. Teacher raises questions in order to assess students’ prior knowledge and values and to uncover their beliefs or biases
b. Also used to identify areas where students’ thinking is fuzzy or unclear
3. Issue-Specific Discussion
a. Used to explore an issue or topic in-depth, evaluate thoughts and perspectives, distinguish that known from the unknown, and synthesize relevant factors and knowledge
Types of Questions
Clarification
o What do you mean by _____?
o How does _____ relate to _____?
o Could you give me an example?
o Why do you say that?
Assumptions
o All of your ideas seem to be based on the idea that _____. Why have you based your reasoning on _____ rather than _____?
o Is that always the case? Why do you think that assumption holds here?
o What could we assume instead? How would that change our conclusion?
Reasons and Evidence
o What is your reason for saying that?
o What other information do we need to know?
o Is there reason to doubt the evidence or sources of our information?
o What led you to that conclusion?
o What would convince you otherwise?
Viewpoints or Perspectives
o How might other groups/people respond to this issue?
o What would someone who disagrees say?
o How are Suzy and David’s ideas alike? How are they different?
Implications and Consequences
o What are you implying by your statement?
o What effect would that have?
Motivation based on Self theories
Self-Efficacy: expectation that we are capable of performing a task and succeeding. A higher self-efficacy means a higher intrinsic motivation.
Four sources of self efficacy:
In order to be motivated we need high:
Self-Worth: appraisal of one’s own value as a person. We are motivated to feel valued as a person.
Self- Determination: autonomy. We are motivated to feel competant.
Views of Ability:
Entity view of ability: ability is stable and uncontrollable “I will always fail, no matter what.”
Incremental view of ability: ability is unstable and controllable “If I work hard, I will succeed.”
Self Worth Types of students:
Extrinsic motivation: engaging for external reasons
Intrinsic motivation: engaging for its own sake or out of interest
How to create an intrinsically motivating learning environment: introduce a lesson by conveying importance or relevance, use enthusiasm and surprise, design tasks of optimal difficulty, provide choices for learning activities, create tasks that involve collaborative grouping, display students’ work to emphasize effort, creativity, and pride in accomplishment
External Locus of Control: the result of one’s behavior—getting a reward—is the result of external factors beyond one’s control, like luck
Internal Locus of Control: The result of one’s behavior is the result of internal factors that one can control like ability or effort
Rewards:
Rewards can have different effects on intrinsic motivation depending on several factors:
- The purpose of the reward
- How students perceive the reward
- The context in which the reward is given
Task-Contingent Rewards: given for participating in or completing an activity
Performance-Contingent Rewards: given for doing well or achieving a certain level or performance
How can one use rewards effectively?
- Occasionally use unexpected rewards
- Use tangible rewards sparingly and withdraw rewards asap
- Use the most modest reward possible
- Make rewards contingent on quality of work
- Minimize the use of an authoritarian style
Encouragement: Informational and used to help individuals improve
Evaluative Praise: Judgment on performance or behavior. Is often referred to as controlling because it doesn’t affect intrinsic motivation
Process Praise: evaluation of the process taken to complete a task
Performance Praise: outcome praise. Evaluation of the end project
Person Praise: favorable judgment about a person’s attributes or behaviors
Motivation based on Cognitive theory
Expectancy: student’s expectation for success
Value: reason for undertaking a task
- Expectancy+Value= Motivation
Intrinsic Value: satisfying interest, curiosity, or enjoyment
Attainment Value: the intrinsic importance of being good at a task
Utility Value: extrinsic usefulness for meeting short-term and long-term goals
Mastery-Approach Goal: focus on improving intellectually, acquiring new skills and knowledge, and developing competence.
Performance-Approach Goal: motivated by a need to achieve and a fear of failure. Outperform others.
Mastery-Avoidance Goal: avoid situations where they might fail the achieve mastery.
- Never want to fail
- Leads to disorganized studying, increased test anxiety, negative feelings about failure, avoidance of help-seeking, and less intrinsic motivation.
- Don’t want to look stupid.
- Leads to surface-level learning strategies, disorganized study habits, self-handicapping strategies, avoidance of help-seeking, disengagement, lower performance, and anxiety and negative feeling about failure.
Anxiety: mental thoughts related to worrying and negative emotions such as nervousness or tension, which can impair academic performance
Learned Helplessness: a person believes that they cannot succeed. Learn to behave helplessly.
Three Dimensions of Attributions:
- locus (where we place the cause of the outcome)
- Stability (cause is stable or unstable)
- Controllability (personal responsibility for the outcome)
Entity View of Ability: internal, uncontrollable, stable
Student-Level Techniques to Enhance Students’ Motivation
- Change students’ attributions for success and failure
- Teach students to value challenge, improvement, and effort
- Provide short-term goals and strategies for making progress toward goals
- Reduce the competitive atmosphere of the classroom
- Use appropriate methods of evaluation and recognition
- Emphasize the value of learning
Questioning
3 Main Forms of Discussion:
1. Spontaneous Discussion
a. Can provide a model of listening critically and exploring personal beliefs
b. Especially useful when students become interested in a topic, when they raise an important issue during class, or when they are on the brink of grasping an idea
2. Exploratory Discussion
a. Teacher raises questions in order to assess students’ prior knowledge and values and to uncover their beliefs or biases
b. Also used to identify areas where students’ thinking is fuzzy or unclear
3. Issue-Specific Discussion
a. Used to explore an issue or topic in-depth, evaluate thoughts and perspectives, distinguish that known from the unknown, and synthesize relevant factors and knowledge
Types of Questions
Clarification
o What do you mean by _____?
o How does _____ relate to _____?
o Could you give me an example?
o Why do you say that?
Assumptions
o All of your ideas seem to be based on the idea that _____. Why have you based your reasoning on _____ rather than _____?
o Is that always the case? Why do you think that assumption holds here?
o What could we assume instead? How would that change our conclusion?
Reasons and Evidence
o What is your reason for saying that?
o What other information do we need to know?
o Is there reason to doubt the evidence or sources of our information?
o What led you to that conclusion?
o What would convince you otherwise?
Viewpoints or Perspectives
o How might other groups/people respond to this issue?
o What would someone who disagrees say?
o How are Suzy and David’s ideas alike? How are they different?
Implications and Consequences
o What are you implying by your statement?
o What effect would that have?
Motivation based on Self theories
Self-Efficacy: expectation that we are capable of performing a task and succeeding. A higher self-efficacy means a higher intrinsic motivation.
Four sources of self efficacy:
- Past performance
- Comparisons between own work with work of others
- Verbal persuasion
- States of emotional arousal
In order to be motivated we need high:
- Outcome Expectations: believe that particular actions lead to particular outcomes
- Efficacy Expectations: belief that we have the requisite knowledge or skills to achieve an outcome
Self-Worth: appraisal of one’s own value as a person. We are motivated to feel valued as a person.
Self- Determination: autonomy. We are motivated to feel competant.
Views of Ability:
Entity view of ability: ability is stable and uncontrollable “I will always fail, no matter what.”
Incremental view of ability: ability is unstable and controllable “If I work hard, I will succeed.”
Self Worth Types of students:
Success-Oriented Students: intrinsically motivated. Success=the best they can be
Overstrivers: excessive fear of failure. Success=better than others. Several strategies (attempting easy tasks, having low aspirations, rehearsing responses, excessive attention to detail, cheating) Failure-Avoiding Students: no high expectations for success. Minimizing participation, making excuses, procrastination, selecting difficult tasks, not trying. Failure-Accepting Students: don’t approach success or avoid failure. Take little credit for success, believe success is external, blame themselves for failure, view new failures as confirmation of lack of ability. |
Self-Determination:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: people motivated by a need to reach their full potential, or self-actualization. To be self-actualized is to be fulfilled in life.
Physiological needs (food, shelter), safety needs (stability, order), love and belonging needs (love, friendship), esteem needs (desire achievement, respect from others), self-actualization (satisfy potential)
Internalization: the process of moving from not feeling self-determined/motivated about a certain task to feeling self-determined/motivated.
1. amotivation=non-self-determined
2. Extrinsic motivation is in the middle of the spectrum. Here are the types of extrinsic motivation from less to more autonomous:
a. External regulation: You perform in response to external contingencies like rewards
b. Introjected regulation: You participate in order to comply with external pressure
c. Identification: You engage without external pressure because you understand the value of the task (even though you may not enjoy it).
d. Integration: exterinsic regulations are completely accepted into your belief system ( a student studies because that’s what they have to do, without question.
3. Intrinsic motivation=self-determined
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: people motivated by a need to reach their full potential, or self-actualization. To be self-actualized is to be fulfilled in life.
Physiological needs (food, shelter), safety needs (stability, order), love and belonging needs (love, friendship), esteem needs (desire achievement, respect from others), self-actualization (satisfy potential)
Internalization: the process of moving from not feeling self-determined/motivated about a certain task to feeling self-determined/motivated.
1. amotivation=non-self-determined
2. Extrinsic motivation is in the middle of the spectrum. Here are the types of extrinsic motivation from less to more autonomous:
a. External regulation: You perform in response to external contingencies like rewards
b. Introjected regulation: You participate in order to comply with external pressure
c. Identification: You engage without external pressure because you understand the value of the task (even though you may not enjoy it).
d. Integration: exterinsic regulations are completely accepted into your belief system ( a student studies because that’s what they have to do, without question.
3. Intrinsic motivation=self-determined